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The social learning and development of intra- and inter-ethnic sharing norms in the Congo Basin

Sheina Lew-Levy Orcid Logo, Luke Maurits, Adam H. Boyette, Kate Ellis-Davies, Daniel Haun Orcid Logo, Wilson Vieira, Ardain Dzabatou, Bienvenue Mbongo, Francy Kiabiya Ntamboudila, Roger Ndenguele, Harriet Over, Bailey R. House Orcid Logo, Sarah Pope-Caldwell

PLOS One, Volume: 21, Issue: 1, Start page: e0340388

Swansea University Author: Kate Ellis-Davies

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DOI (Published version): 10.1371/journal.pone.0340388

Abstract

Compared to other species, the extent of human cooperation is unparalleled. Such cooperation is coordinated between community members via social norms. Developmental research has demonstrated that very young children are sensitive to social norms, and that social norms are internalized by middle chi...

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Published in: PLOS One
ISSN: 1932-6203
Published: Public Library of Science (PLOS) 2026
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URI: https://cronfa.swan.ac.uk/Record/cronfa71356
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Yet around the world, multi-ethnic communities also cooperate, and this cooperation is often shaped by distinct inter-group social norms. In the present study, we investigated whether intra-ethnic and inter-ethnic social norm acquisition follows the same, or distinct, developmental trajectories. Specifically, we worked with BaYaka foragers and Bandongo fisher-farmers who inhabit multi-ethnic villages in the Republic of the Congo. In these villages, inter-ethnic cooperation is regulated by sharing norms. Based on our ethnographic knowledge of the participating communities, we predicted that children&#x2019;s intra-ethnic sharing choices would match those of adults at an earlier age than their inter-ethnic sharing choices. To test this prediction, children (5&#x2013;17 years) and adults (17 + years) participated in a modified Dictator Game to investigate the developmental trajectories of children&#x2019;s intra- and inter-ethnic sharing choices. 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spelling 2026-01-30T15:57:32.6496263 v2 71356 2026-01-30 The social learning and development of intra- and inter-ethnic sharing norms in the Congo Basin d0502e723f5e67a1c2058a27d89511e8 Kate Ellis-Davies Kate Ellis-Davies true false 2026-01-30 PSYS Compared to other species, the extent of human cooperation is unparalleled. Such cooperation is coordinated between community members via social norms. Developmental research has demonstrated that very young children are sensitive to social norms, and that social norms are internalized by middle childhood. Most research on social norm acquisition has focused on norms that modulate intra-group cooperation. Yet around the world, multi-ethnic communities also cooperate, and this cooperation is often shaped by distinct inter-group social norms. In the present study, we investigated whether intra-ethnic and inter-ethnic social norm acquisition follows the same, or distinct, developmental trajectories. Specifically, we worked with BaYaka foragers and Bandongo fisher-farmers who inhabit multi-ethnic villages in the Republic of the Congo. In these villages, inter-ethnic cooperation is regulated by sharing norms. Based on our ethnographic knowledge of the participating communities, we predicted that children’s intra-ethnic sharing choices would match those of adults at an earlier age than their inter-ethnic sharing choices. To test this prediction, children (5–17 years) and adults (17 + years) participated in a modified Dictator Game to investigate the developmental trajectories of children’s intra- and inter-ethnic sharing choices. Contrary to our prediction, both intra- and inter-ethnic sharing norms were acquired in middle childhood. Interviews with adult participants suggested that intra- and inter-ethnic sharing norms are acquired from multiple sources, including parents and peers. Further, Bandongo adults primarily reported learning sharing norms via Instruction, whereas BaYaka adults primarily reported learning via Observation/Imitation. These cross-cultural differences may reflect variation in norm complexity. Together, these findings suggest that when social contexts regularly expose children to out-group collaboration, inter-ethnic norms are acquired at similar timelines to intra-ethnic ones, as part of children’s broader cooperative repertoire. Journal Article PLOS One 21 1 e0340388 Public Library of Science (PLOS) 1932-6203 28 1 2026 2026-01-28 10.1371/journal.pone.0340388 COLLEGE NANME Psychology School COLLEGE CODE PSYS Swansea University Another institution paid the OA fee Alexander von Humboldt Foundation; Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science 2026-01-30T15:57:32.6496263 2026-01-30T15:52:34.6295631 Faculty of Medicine, Health and Life Sciences School of Psychology Sheina Lew-Levy 0000-0002-1250-6418 1 Luke Maurits 2 Adam H. Boyette 3 Kate Ellis-Davies 4 Daniel Haun 0000-0002-3262-645X 5 Wilson Vieira 6 Ardain Dzabatou 7 Bienvenue Mbongo 8 Francy Kiabiya Ntamboudila 9 Roger Ndenguele 10 Harriet Over 11 Bailey R. House 0000-0002-4023-9724 12 Sarah Pope-Caldwell 13 71356__36156__adf2153ae0864be7a0ee6c4b8395ff85.pdf pone.0340388.pdf 2026-01-30T15:52:34.6294788 Output 1390119 application/pdf Version of Record true © 2026 Lew-Levy et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License. true eng http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
title The social learning and development of intra- and inter-ethnic sharing norms in the Congo Basin
spellingShingle The social learning and development of intra- and inter-ethnic sharing norms in the Congo Basin
Kate Ellis-Davies
title_short The social learning and development of intra- and inter-ethnic sharing norms in the Congo Basin
title_full The social learning and development of intra- and inter-ethnic sharing norms in the Congo Basin
title_fullStr The social learning and development of intra- and inter-ethnic sharing norms in the Congo Basin
title_full_unstemmed The social learning and development of intra- and inter-ethnic sharing norms in the Congo Basin
title_sort The social learning and development of intra- and inter-ethnic sharing norms in the Congo Basin
author_id_str_mv d0502e723f5e67a1c2058a27d89511e8
author_id_fullname_str_mv d0502e723f5e67a1c2058a27d89511e8_***_Kate Ellis-Davies
author Kate Ellis-Davies
author2 Sheina Lew-Levy
Luke Maurits
Adam H. Boyette
Kate Ellis-Davies
Daniel Haun
Wilson Vieira
Ardain Dzabatou
Bienvenue Mbongo
Francy Kiabiya Ntamboudila
Roger Ndenguele
Harriet Over
Bailey R. House
Sarah Pope-Caldwell
format Journal article
container_title PLOS One
container_volume 21
container_issue 1
container_start_page e0340388
publishDate 2026
institution Swansea University
issn 1932-6203
doi_str_mv 10.1371/journal.pone.0340388
publisher Public Library of Science (PLOS)
college_str Faculty of Medicine, Health and Life Sciences
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hierarchy_top_id facultyofmedicinehealthandlifesciences
hierarchy_top_title Faculty of Medicine, Health and Life Sciences
hierarchy_parent_id facultyofmedicinehealthandlifesciences
hierarchy_parent_title Faculty of Medicine, Health and Life Sciences
department_str School of Psychology{{{_:::_}}}Faculty of Medicine, Health and Life Sciences{{{_:::_}}}School of Psychology
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description Compared to other species, the extent of human cooperation is unparalleled. Such cooperation is coordinated between community members via social norms. Developmental research has demonstrated that very young children are sensitive to social norms, and that social norms are internalized by middle childhood. Most research on social norm acquisition has focused on norms that modulate intra-group cooperation. Yet around the world, multi-ethnic communities also cooperate, and this cooperation is often shaped by distinct inter-group social norms. In the present study, we investigated whether intra-ethnic and inter-ethnic social norm acquisition follows the same, or distinct, developmental trajectories. Specifically, we worked with BaYaka foragers and Bandongo fisher-farmers who inhabit multi-ethnic villages in the Republic of the Congo. In these villages, inter-ethnic cooperation is regulated by sharing norms. Based on our ethnographic knowledge of the participating communities, we predicted that children’s intra-ethnic sharing choices would match those of adults at an earlier age than their inter-ethnic sharing choices. To test this prediction, children (5–17 years) and adults (17 + years) participated in a modified Dictator Game to investigate the developmental trajectories of children’s intra- and inter-ethnic sharing choices. Contrary to our prediction, both intra- and inter-ethnic sharing norms were acquired in middle childhood. Interviews with adult participants suggested that intra- and inter-ethnic sharing norms are acquired from multiple sources, including parents and peers. Further, Bandongo adults primarily reported learning sharing norms via Instruction, whereas BaYaka adults primarily reported learning via Observation/Imitation. These cross-cultural differences may reflect variation in norm complexity. Together, these findings suggest that when social contexts regularly expose children to out-group collaboration, inter-ethnic norms are acquired at similar timelines to intra-ethnic ones, as part of children’s broader cooperative repertoire.
published_date 2026-01-28T05:35:08Z
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