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The social learning and development of intra- and inter-ethnic sharing norms in the Congo Basin
,
Luke Maurits,
Adam H. Boyette,
Kate Ellis-Davies,
Daniel Haun ,
Wilson Vieira,
Ardain Dzabatou,
Bienvenue Mbongo,
Francy Kiabiya Ntamboudila,
Roger Ndenguele,
Harriet Over,
Bailey R. House ,
Sarah Pope-Caldwell
PLOS One, Volume: 21, Issue: 1, Start page: e0340388
Swansea University Author: Kate Ellis-Davies
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© 2026 Lew-Levy et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License.
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DOI (Published version): 10.1371/journal.pone.0340388
Abstract
Compared to other species, the extent of human cooperation is unparalleled. Such cooperation is coordinated between community members via social norms. Developmental research has demonstrated that very young children are sensitive to social norms, and that social norms are internalized by middle chi...
| Published in: | PLOS One |
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| ISSN: | 1932-6203 |
| Published: |
Public Library of Science (PLOS)
2026
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| Online Access: |
Check full text
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| URI: | https://cronfa.swan.ac.uk/Record/cronfa71356 |
| Abstract: |
Compared to other species, the extent of human cooperation is unparalleled. Such cooperation is coordinated between community members via social norms. Developmental research has demonstrated that very young children are sensitive to social norms, and that social norms are internalized by middle childhood. Most research on social norm acquisition has focused on norms that modulate intra-group cooperation. Yet around the world, multi-ethnic communities also cooperate, and this cooperation is often shaped by distinct inter-group social norms. In the present study, we investigated whether intra-ethnic and inter-ethnic social norm acquisition follows the same, or distinct, developmental trajectories. Specifically, we worked with BaYaka foragers and Bandongo fisher-farmers who inhabit multi-ethnic villages in the Republic of the Congo. In these villages, inter-ethnic cooperation is regulated by sharing norms. Based on our ethnographic knowledge of the participating communities, we predicted that children’s intra-ethnic sharing choices would match those of adults at an earlier age than their inter-ethnic sharing choices. To test this prediction, children (5–17 years) and adults (17 + years) participated in a modified Dictator Game to investigate the developmental trajectories of children’s intra- and inter-ethnic sharing choices. Contrary to our prediction, both intra- and inter-ethnic sharing norms were acquired in middle childhood. Interviews with adult participants suggested that intra- and inter-ethnic sharing norms are acquired from multiple sources, including parents and peers. Further, Bandongo adults primarily reported learning sharing norms via Instruction, whereas BaYaka adults primarily reported learning via Observation/Imitation. These cross-cultural differences may reflect variation in norm complexity. Together, these findings suggest that when social contexts regularly expose children to out-group collaboration, inter-ethnic norms are acquired at similar timelines to intra-ethnic ones, as part of children’s broader cooperative repertoire. |
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| College: |
Faculty of Medicine, Health and Life Sciences |
| Funders: |
Alexander von Humboldt Foundation; Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science |
| Issue: |
1 |
| Start Page: |
e0340388 |