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Identification of the role of zinc in Sn–Cu solder and interfacial intermetallic growth through experimental results and phase-field simulations

H.R. Kotadia, A. Rahnama, F. Tang, J.I. Ahuir-Torres Orcid Logo, G. West, Amit Das Orcid Logo, S.H. Mannan Orcid Logo

Materials & Design, Volume: 260, Start page: 115219

Swansea University Author: Amit Das Orcid Logo

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DOI (Published version): 10.1016/j.matdes.2025.115219

Abstract

Intermetallic compound (IMC) formation significantly impacts the reliability of lead-free solder joints, with trace elements like Ni and Zn offering potential to control IMC growth. However, the mechanisms by which trace Zn influences microstructural evolution and interfacial reactions remain undere...

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Published in: Materials & Design
ISSN: 0264-1275
Published: Elsevier BV 2025
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URI: https://cronfa.swan.ac.uk/Record/cronfa71142
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This study examines microstructural evolution and interfacial behaviour in five Sn&#x2013;Cu&#x2013;Zn solder alloys (0&#x2013;1 wt% Zn). Zn destabilises the eutectic interface, producing cellular morphologies with mixed eutectic at cell centres and CuZn IMCs in interdendritic regions. Even trace Zn notably affects solidification by reducing undercooling and altering &#x3B2;-Sn growth. While trace Zn has limited effect on suppressing &#x3B7;-Cu6Sn5, &#x3B5;-Cu3Sn, or Kirkendall voids on Cu, it reduces IMC thickness, indicating growth inhibition. Adding &#x2265; 0.8 wt% Zn reduces IMC thickness at 150 &#xB0;C by 68.5 % after 1000 h, from &#x223C; 16.5 &#xB5;m (Sn&#x2013;Cu) to &#x223C; 5&#x2013;5.5 &#xB5;m, also lowering void growth. The presence of a thin &#x3B3;-Cu5Zn8 layer (&lt;100 nm) at the interface substantially alters the nucleation, growth, and morphology of the &#x3B7;-phase. Phase-field simulation helped explain the experimental observations indicating thin &#x3B3;-Cu5Zn8 formation at the solder-substrate interface that enhanced nucleation of &#x3B7;-Cu6Sn5 but reduced the growth kinetics of &#x3B7; and &#x3B5; phases by creating a diffusion barrier for Cu atoms.</abstract><type>Journal Article</type><journal>Materials &amp;amp; Design</journal><volume>260</volume><journalNumber/><paginationStart>115219</paginationStart><paginationEnd/><publisher>Elsevier BV</publisher><placeOfPublication/><isbnPrint/><isbnElectronic/><issnPrint>0264-1275</issnPrint><issnElectronic/><keywords>Sn-Cu solder; Pb-free solder; Intermetallic compounds (IMCs); Solidification; Phase-field simulations</keywords><publishedDay>1</publishedDay><publishedMonth>12</publishedMonth><publishedYear>2025</publishedYear><publishedDate>2025-12-01</publishedDate><doi>10.1016/j.matdes.2025.115219</doi><url/><notes/><college>COLLEGE NANME</college><department>Engineering and Applied Sciences School</department><CollegeCode>COLLEGE CODE</CollegeCode><DepartmentCode>EAAS</DepartmentCode><institution>Swansea University</institution><apcterm>Another institution paid the OA fee</apcterm><funders>This research was funded by the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council, Grant no. 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spelling 2026-01-20T11:26:31.1854421 v2 71142 2025-12-12 Identification of the role of zinc in Sn–Cu solder and interfacial intermetallic growth through experimental results and phase-field simulations 4d785df766daed9a857c934bb130ed8b 0000-0002-7196-6254 Amit Das Amit Das true false 2025-12-12 EAAS Intermetallic compound (IMC) formation significantly impacts the reliability of lead-free solder joints, with trace elements like Ni and Zn offering potential to control IMC growth. However, the mechanisms by which trace Zn influences microstructural evolution and interfacial reactions remain underexplored. This study examines microstructural evolution and interfacial behaviour in five Sn–Cu–Zn solder alloys (0–1 wt% Zn). Zn destabilises the eutectic interface, producing cellular morphologies with mixed eutectic at cell centres and CuZn IMCs in interdendritic regions. Even trace Zn notably affects solidification by reducing undercooling and altering β-Sn growth. While trace Zn has limited effect on suppressing η-Cu6Sn5, ε-Cu3Sn, or Kirkendall voids on Cu, it reduces IMC thickness, indicating growth inhibition. Adding ≥ 0.8 wt% Zn reduces IMC thickness at 150 °C by 68.5 % after 1000 h, from ∼ 16.5 µm (Sn–Cu) to ∼ 5–5.5 µm, also lowering void growth. The presence of a thin γ-Cu5Zn8 layer (<100 nm) at the interface substantially alters the nucleation, growth, and morphology of the η-phase. Phase-field simulation helped explain the experimental observations indicating thin γ-Cu5Zn8 formation at the solder-substrate interface that enhanced nucleation of η-Cu6Sn5 but reduced the growth kinetics of η and ε phases by creating a diffusion barrier for Cu atoms. Journal Article Materials &amp; Design 260 115219 Elsevier BV 0264-1275 Sn-Cu solder; Pb-free solder; Intermetallic compounds (IMCs); Solidification; Phase-field simulations 1 12 2025 2025-12-01 10.1016/j.matdes.2025.115219 COLLEGE NANME Engineering and Applied Sciences School COLLEGE CODE EAAS Swansea University Another institution paid the OA fee This research was funded by the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council, Grant no. EP/G054339/1. In addition to that the characterisation facility is supported from the Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE) fund and the WMG Centre High Value Manufacturing Catapult is gratefully acknowledged. 2026-01-20T11:26:31.1854421 2025-12-12T14:22:26.4169021 Faculty of Science and Engineering School of Engineering and Applied Sciences - Materials Science and Engineering H.R. Kotadia 1 A. Rahnama 2 F. Tang 3 J.I. Ahuir-Torres 0000-0002-3160-0223 4 G. West 5 Amit Das 0000-0002-7196-6254 6 S.H. Mannan 0000-0002-3452-6532 7 71142__36056__270bd9513d284a9c893ac075324ee490.pdf 71142.VoR.pdf 2026-01-20T11:24:26.2842412 Output 15301251 application/pdf Version of Record true © 2025 The Author(s). This is an open access article under the CC BY license. true eng http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
title Identification of the role of zinc in Sn–Cu solder and interfacial intermetallic growth through experimental results and phase-field simulations
spellingShingle Identification of the role of zinc in Sn–Cu solder and interfacial intermetallic growth through experimental results and phase-field simulations
Amit Das
title_short Identification of the role of zinc in Sn–Cu solder and interfacial intermetallic growth through experimental results and phase-field simulations
title_full Identification of the role of zinc in Sn–Cu solder and interfacial intermetallic growth through experimental results and phase-field simulations
title_fullStr Identification of the role of zinc in Sn–Cu solder and interfacial intermetallic growth through experimental results and phase-field simulations
title_full_unstemmed Identification of the role of zinc in Sn–Cu solder and interfacial intermetallic growth through experimental results and phase-field simulations
title_sort Identification of the role of zinc in Sn–Cu solder and interfacial intermetallic growth through experimental results and phase-field simulations
author_id_str_mv 4d785df766daed9a857c934bb130ed8b
author_id_fullname_str_mv 4d785df766daed9a857c934bb130ed8b_***_Amit Das
author Amit Das
author2 H.R. Kotadia
A. Rahnama
F. Tang
J.I. Ahuir-Torres
G. West
Amit Das
S.H. Mannan
format Journal article
container_title Materials &amp; Design
container_volume 260
container_start_page 115219
publishDate 2025
institution Swansea University
issn 0264-1275
doi_str_mv 10.1016/j.matdes.2025.115219
publisher Elsevier BV
college_str Faculty of Science and Engineering
hierarchytype
hierarchy_top_id facultyofscienceandengineering
hierarchy_top_title Faculty of Science and Engineering
hierarchy_parent_id facultyofscienceandengineering
hierarchy_parent_title Faculty of Science and Engineering
department_str School of Engineering and Applied Sciences - Materials Science and Engineering{{{_:::_}}}Faculty of Science and Engineering{{{_:::_}}}School of Engineering and Applied Sciences - Materials Science and Engineering
document_store_str 1
active_str 0
description Intermetallic compound (IMC) formation significantly impacts the reliability of lead-free solder joints, with trace elements like Ni and Zn offering potential to control IMC growth. However, the mechanisms by which trace Zn influences microstructural evolution and interfacial reactions remain underexplored. This study examines microstructural evolution and interfacial behaviour in five Sn–Cu–Zn solder alloys (0–1 wt% Zn). Zn destabilises the eutectic interface, producing cellular morphologies with mixed eutectic at cell centres and CuZn IMCs in interdendritic regions. Even trace Zn notably affects solidification by reducing undercooling and altering β-Sn growth. While trace Zn has limited effect on suppressing η-Cu6Sn5, ε-Cu3Sn, or Kirkendall voids on Cu, it reduces IMC thickness, indicating growth inhibition. Adding ≥ 0.8 wt% Zn reduces IMC thickness at 150 °C by 68.5 % after 1000 h, from ∼ 16.5 µm (Sn–Cu) to ∼ 5–5.5 µm, also lowering void growth. The presence of a thin γ-Cu5Zn8 layer (<100 nm) at the interface substantially alters the nucleation, growth, and morphology of the η-phase. Phase-field simulation helped explain the experimental observations indicating thin γ-Cu5Zn8 formation at the solder-substrate interface that enhanced nucleation of η-Cu6Sn5 but reduced the growth kinetics of η and ε phases by creating a diffusion barrier for Cu atoms.
published_date 2025-12-01T05:34:33Z
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score 11.096295

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