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UNMANNED AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS AND STRICT PRODUCT LIABILITY IN THE UK: TIME FOR REFORM

Georgios Leloudas Orcid Logo, Furkan Bulut

Air and Space Law

Swansea University Authors: Georgios Leloudas Orcid Logo, Furkan Bulut

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Abstract

Digitalisation and advanced communication technologies are poised to enable the deployment of Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) in non-segregated airspace through Beyond Visual Line of Sight (BVLOS), including those that are autonomous. This transition shifts the primary source of accident risk from h...

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Published in: Air and Space Law
ISSN: 0927-3379 1875-8339
Published: Kluwer Law International BV
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URI: https://cronfa.swan.ac.uk/Record/cronfa71150
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last_indexed 2026-01-23T06:52:00Z
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spelling 2026-01-22T14:29:47.4539930 v2 71150 2025-12-16 UNMANNED AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS AND STRICT PRODUCT LIABILITY IN THE UK: TIME FOR REFORM 0e971cacb2ff8d275bc34532b829256c 0000-0002-9397-4407 Georgios Leloudas Georgios Leloudas true false 7f3dac9919b284dd5902c3d68db67d66 Furkan Bulut Furkan Bulut true false 2025-12-16 HRCL Digitalisation and advanced communication technologies are poised to enable the deployment of Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) in non-segregated airspace through Beyond Visual Line of Sight (BVLOS), including those that are autonomous. This transition shifts the primary source of accident risk from human error to product defect. . As such, it is critical to assess the adequacy of the relevant compensation mechanisms. The Consumer Protection Act 1987 (CPA 1987) is the primary tool that imposes strict liability on producers for defective products in the UK; however, it was drafted before the widespread deployment of interconnected cyber-physical systems and self-learning algorithms. This article evaluates the application of the CPA 1987 to UAS, arguing it is unable to cater for digital technologies, including (but not limited) to defining the “product”, establishing post-supply liability, and addressing the burden of proof for AI applications. Furthermore, it argues that reliance on the operator-focused s 76 (2) – (4) of the Civil Aviation Act 1982 transfers the burden of product defects onto UAS operators. Building upon the new EU Product Liability Directive, this article concludes that the existing product liability framework of the UK is inadequate and requires reform. Journal Article Air and Space Law Kluwer Law International BV 0927-3379 1875-8339 unmanned aircraft systems (UAS), product liability, strict liability, Consumer Protection Act 1987, Civil Aviation Act 1982, digitalisation, artificial intelligence, legislative reform 0 0 0 0001-01-01 COLLEGE NANME Hillary Rodham Clinton Law School COLLEGE CODE HRCL Swansea University Not Required 2026-01-22T14:29:47.4539930 2025-12-16T11:25:31.4643818 Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences Hilary Rodham Clinton School of Law Georgios Leloudas 0000-0002-9397-4407 1 Furkan Bulut 2
title UNMANNED AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS AND STRICT PRODUCT LIABILITY IN THE UK: TIME FOR REFORM
spellingShingle UNMANNED AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS AND STRICT PRODUCT LIABILITY IN THE UK: TIME FOR REFORM
Georgios Leloudas
Furkan Bulut
title_short UNMANNED AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS AND STRICT PRODUCT LIABILITY IN THE UK: TIME FOR REFORM
title_full UNMANNED AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS AND STRICT PRODUCT LIABILITY IN THE UK: TIME FOR REFORM
title_fullStr UNMANNED AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS AND STRICT PRODUCT LIABILITY IN THE UK: TIME FOR REFORM
title_full_unstemmed UNMANNED AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS AND STRICT PRODUCT LIABILITY IN THE UK: TIME FOR REFORM
title_sort UNMANNED AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS AND STRICT PRODUCT LIABILITY IN THE UK: TIME FOR REFORM
author_id_str_mv 0e971cacb2ff8d275bc34532b829256c
7f3dac9919b284dd5902c3d68db67d66
author_id_fullname_str_mv 0e971cacb2ff8d275bc34532b829256c_***_Georgios Leloudas
7f3dac9919b284dd5902c3d68db67d66_***_Furkan Bulut
author Georgios Leloudas
Furkan Bulut
author2 Georgios Leloudas
Furkan Bulut
format Journal article
container_title Air and Space Law
institution Swansea University
issn 0927-3379
1875-8339
publisher Kluwer Law International BV
college_str Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences
hierarchytype
hierarchy_top_id facultyofhumanitiesandsocialsciences
hierarchy_top_title Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences
hierarchy_parent_id facultyofhumanitiesandsocialsciences
hierarchy_parent_title Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences
department_str Hilary Rodham Clinton School of Law{{{_:::_}}}Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences{{{_:::_}}}Hilary Rodham Clinton School of Law
document_store_str 0
active_str 0
description Digitalisation and advanced communication technologies are poised to enable the deployment of Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) in non-segregated airspace through Beyond Visual Line of Sight (BVLOS), including those that are autonomous. This transition shifts the primary source of accident risk from human error to product defect. . As such, it is critical to assess the adequacy of the relevant compensation mechanisms. The Consumer Protection Act 1987 (CPA 1987) is the primary tool that imposes strict liability on producers for defective products in the UK; however, it was drafted before the widespread deployment of interconnected cyber-physical systems and self-learning algorithms. This article evaluates the application of the CPA 1987 to UAS, arguing it is unable to cater for digital technologies, including (but not limited) to defining the “product”, establishing post-supply liability, and addressing the burden of proof for AI applications. Furthermore, it argues that reliance on the operator-focused s 76 (2) – (4) of the Civil Aviation Act 1982 transfers the burden of product defects onto UAS operators. Building upon the new EU Product Liability Directive, this article concludes that the existing product liability framework of the UK is inadequate and requires reform.
published_date 0001-01-01T05:34:42Z
_version_ 1856896481486700544
score 11.096068

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