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The Use and Impact of Cognitive Enhancers among University Students: A Systematic Review

Safia Sharif, Amira Guirguis Orcid Logo, Suzanne Fergus, Fabrizio Schifano

Brain Sciences, Volume: 11, Issue: 3, Start page: 355

Swansea University Author: Amira Guirguis Orcid Logo

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DOI (Published version): 10.3390/brainsci11030355

Abstract

Introduction: Cognitive enhancers (CEs), also known as “smart drugs”, “study aids” or “nootropics” are a cause of concern. Recent research studies investigated the use of CEs being taken as study aids by university students. This manuscript provides an overview of popular CEs, focusing on a range of...

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Published in: Brain Sciences
ISSN: 2076-3425
Published: MDPI AG 2021
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This manuscript provides an overview of popular CEs, focusing on a range of drugs/substances (e.g., prescription CEs including amphetamine salt mixtures, methylphenidate, modafinil and piracetam; and non-prescription CEs including caffeine, cobalamin (vitamin B12), guarana, pyridoxine (vitamin B6) and vinpocetine) that have emerged as being misused. The diverted non-prescription use of these molecules and the related potential for dependence and/or addiction is being reported. It has been demonstrated that healthy students (i.e., those without any diagnosed mental disorders) are increasingly using drugs such as methylphenidate, a mixture of dextroamphetamine/amphetamine, and modafinil, for the purpose of increasing their alertness, concentration or memory. Aim: To investigate the level of knowledge, perception and impact of the use of a range of CEs within Higher Education Institutions. Methodology: A systematic review was conducted in adherence with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Whilst 1400 studies were identified within this study through a variety of electronic databases (e.g., 520 through PubMed, 490 through Science Direct and 390 through Scopus), 48 papers were deemed relevant and were included in this review. Results: The most popular molecules identified here included the stimulant CEs, e.g., methylphenidate, modafinil, amphetamine salt mixtures and caffeine-related compounds; stimulant CEs&#x2019; intake was more prevalent among males than females; drugs were largely obtained from friends and family, as well as via the Internet. It is therefore suggested that CEs are increasingly being used among healthy individuals, mainly students without any diagnosed cognitive disorders, to increase their alertness, concentration, or memory, in the belief that these CEs will improve their performance during examinations or when studying. The impact of stimulant CEs may include tolerance, dependence and/or somatic (e.g., cardiovascular; neurological) complications. Discussion: The availability of CEs for non-medical indications in different countries is influenced by a range of factors including legal, social and ethical factors. Considering the risk factors and motivations that encourage university students to use CE drugs, it is essential to raise awareness about CE-related harms, counteract myths regarding &#x201C;safe&#x201D; CE use and address cognitive enhancement in an early stage during education as a preventative public health measure.</abstract><type>Journal Article</type><journal>Brain Sciences</journal><volume>11</volume><journalNumber>3</journalNumber><paginationStart>355</paginationStart><paginationEnd/><publisher>MDPI AG</publisher><placeOfPublication/><isbnPrint/><isbnElectronic/><issnPrint/><issnElectronic>2076-3425</issnElectronic><keywords>neuroenhancement; cognitive enhancement; drug abuse; university students; study drugs; non-medical drug use; smart drugs</keywords><publishedDay>10</publishedDay><publishedMonth>3</publishedMonth><publishedYear>2021</publishedYear><publishedDate>2021-03-10</publishedDate><doi>10.3390/brainsci11030355</doi><url/><notes/><college>COLLEGE NANME</college><department>Pharmacy</department><CollegeCode>COLLEGE CODE</CollegeCode><DepartmentCode>PHAR</DepartmentCode><institution>Swansea University</institution><apcterm/><lastEdited>2021-03-26T13:21:57.8922266</lastEdited><Created>2021-03-03T13:16:11.1400119</Created><path><level id="1">Faculty of Medicine, Health and Life Sciences</level><level id="2">Swansea University Medical School - Medicine</level></path><authors><author><firstname>Safia</firstname><surname>Sharif</surname><order>1</order></author><author><firstname>Amira</firstname><surname>Guirguis</surname><orcid>0000-0001-8255-0660</orcid><order>2</order></author><author><firstname>Suzanne</firstname><surname>Fergus</surname><order>3</order></author><author><firstname>Fabrizio</firstname><surname>Schifano</surname><order>4</order></author></authors><documents><document><filename>56364__19572__16f6ec7cdb064be7bdd126691b6a2d1a.pdf</filename><originalFilename>56364.pdf</originalFilename><uploaded>2021-03-26T13:20:05.1508634</uploaded><type>Output</type><contentLength>923423</contentLength><contentType>application/pdf</contentType><version>Version of Record</version><cronfaStatus>true</cronfaStatus><documentNotes>Copyright: &#xA9; 2021 by the authors. 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spelling 2021-03-26T13:21:57.8922266 v2 56364 2021-03-03 The Use and Impact of Cognitive Enhancers among University Students: A Systematic Review b49270b9a0d580cf4f31f9a1b6c93f87 0000-0001-8255-0660 Amira Guirguis Amira Guirguis true false 2021-03-03 PHAR Introduction: Cognitive enhancers (CEs), also known as “smart drugs”, “study aids” or “nootropics” are a cause of concern. Recent research studies investigated the use of CEs being taken as study aids by university students. This manuscript provides an overview of popular CEs, focusing on a range of drugs/substances (e.g., prescription CEs including amphetamine salt mixtures, methylphenidate, modafinil and piracetam; and non-prescription CEs including caffeine, cobalamin (vitamin B12), guarana, pyridoxine (vitamin B6) and vinpocetine) that have emerged as being misused. The diverted non-prescription use of these molecules and the related potential for dependence and/or addiction is being reported. It has been demonstrated that healthy students (i.e., those without any diagnosed mental disorders) are increasingly using drugs such as methylphenidate, a mixture of dextroamphetamine/amphetamine, and modafinil, for the purpose of increasing their alertness, concentration or memory. Aim: To investigate the level of knowledge, perception and impact of the use of a range of CEs within Higher Education Institutions. Methodology: A systematic review was conducted in adherence with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Whilst 1400 studies were identified within this study through a variety of electronic databases (e.g., 520 through PubMed, 490 through Science Direct and 390 through Scopus), 48 papers were deemed relevant and were included in this review. Results: The most popular molecules identified here included the stimulant CEs, e.g., methylphenidate, modafinil, amphetamine salt mixtures and caffeine-related compounds; stimulant CEs’ intake was more prevalent among males than females; drugs were largely obtained from friends and family, as well as via the Internet. It is therefore suggested that CEs are increasingly being used among healthy individuals, mainly students without any diagnosed cognitive disorders, to increase their alertness, concentration, or memory, in the belief that these CEs will improve their performance during examinations or when studying. The impact of stimulant CEs may include tolerance, dependence and/or somatic (e.g., cardiovascular; neurological) complications. Discussion: The availability of CEs for non-medical indications in different countries is influenced by a range of factors including legal, social and ethical factors. Considering the risk factors and motivations that encourage university students to use CE drugs, it is essential to raise awareness about CE-related harms, counteract myths regarding “safe” CE use and address cognitive enhancement in an early stage during education as a preventative public health measure. Journal Article Brain Sciences 11 3 355 MDPI AG 2076-3425 neuroenhancement; cognitive enhancement; drug abuse; university students; study drugs; non-medical drug use; smart drugs 10 3 2021 2021-03-10 10.3390/brainsci11030355 COLLEGE NANME Pharmacy COLLEGE CODE PHAR Swansea University 2021-03-26T13:21:57.8922266 2021-03-03T13:16:11.1400119 Faculty of Medicine, Health and Life Sciences Swansea University Medical School - Medicine Safia Sharif 1 Amira Guirguis 0000-0001-8255-0660 2 Suzanne Fergus 3 Fabrizio Schifano 4 56364__19572__16f6ec7cdb064be7bdd126691b6a2d1a.pdf 56364.pdf 2021-03-26T13:20:05.1508634 Output 923423 application/pdf Version of Record true Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license true eng https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
title The Use and Impact of Cognitive Enhancers among University Students: A Systematic Review
spellingShingle The Use and Impact of Cognitive Enhancers among University Students: A Systematic Review
Amira Guirguis
title_short The Use and Impact of Cognitive Enhancers among University Students: A Systematic Review
title_full The Use and Impact of Cognitive Enhancers among University Students: A Systematic Review
title_fullStr The Use and Impact of Cognitive Enhancers among University Students: A Systematic Review
title_full_unstemmed The Use and Impact of Cognitive Enhancers among University Students: A Systematic Review
title_sort The Use and Impact of Cognitive Enhancers among University Students: A Systematic Review
author_id_str_mv b49270b9a0d580cf4f31f9a1b6c93f87
author_id_fullname_str_mv b49270b9a0d580cf4f31f9a1b6c93f87_***_Amira Guirguis
author Amira Guirguis
author2 Safia Sharif
Amira Guirguis
Suzanne Fergus
Fabrizio Schifano
format Journal article
container_title Brain Sciences
container_volume 11
container_issue 3
container_start_page 355
publishDate 2021
institution Swansea University
issn 2076-3425
doi_str_mv 10.3390/brainsci11030355
publisher MDPI AG
college_str Faculty of Medicine, Health and Life Sciences
hierarchytype
hierarchy_top_id facultyofmedicinehealthandlifesciences
hierarchy_top_title Faculty of Medicine, Health and Life Sciences
hierarchy_parent_id facultyofmedicinehealthandlifesciences
hierarchy_parent_title Faculty of Medicine, Health and Life Sciences
department_str Swansea University Medical School - Medicine{{{_:::_}}}Faculty of Medicine, Health and Life Sciences{{{_:::_}}}Swansea University Medical School - Medicine
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description Introduction: Cognitive enhancers (CEs), also known as “smart drugs”, “study aids” or “nootropics” are a cause of concern. Recent research studies investigated the use of CEs being taken as study aids by university students. This manuscript provides an overview of popular CEs, focusing on a range of drugs/substances (e.g., prescription CEs including amphetamine salt mixtures, methylphenidate, modafinil and piracetam; and non-prescription CEs including caffeine, cobalamin (vitamin B12), guarana, pyridoxine (vitamin B6) and vinpocetine) that have emerged as being misused. The diverted non-prescription use of these molecules and the related potential for dependence and/or addiction is being reported. It has been demonstrated that healthy students (i.e., those without any diagnosed mental disorders) are increasingly using drugs such as methylphenidate, a mixture of dextroamphetamine/amphetamine, and modafinil, for the purpose of increasing their alertness, concentration or memory. Aim: To investigate the level of knowledge, perception and impact of the use of a range of CEs within Higher Education Institutions. Methodology: A systematic review was conducted in adherence with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Whilst 1400 studies were identified within this study through a variety of electronic databases (e.g., 520 through PubMed, 490 through Science Direct and 390 through Scopus), 48 papers were deemed relevant and were included in this review. Results: The most popular molecules identified here included the stimulant CEs, e.g., methylphenidate, modafinil, amphetamine salt mixtures and caffeine-related compounds; stimulant CEs’ intake was more prevalent among males than females; drugs were largely obtained from friends and family, as well as via the Internet. It is therefore suggested that CEs are increasingly being used among healthy individuals, mainly students without any diagnosed cognitive disorders, to increase their alertness, concentration, or memory, in the belief that these CEs will improve their performance during examinations or when studying. The impact of stimulant CEs may include tolerance, dependence and/or somatic (e.g., cardiovascular; neurological) complications. Discussion: The availability of CEs for non-medical indications in different countries is influenced by a range of factors including legal, social and ethical factors. Considering the risk factors and motivations that encourage university students to use CE drugs, it is essential to raise awareness about CE-related harms, counteract myths regarding “safe” CE use and address cognitive enhancement in an early stage during education as a preventative public health measure.
published_date 2021-03-10T04:11:16Z
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